Malaysia plane: 10 questions that is still unresolved

As the search for missingMalaysia airlines flight MH370 continues in the southern Indian Ocean, some key questions remain unanswered.

Here are 10 questions about what happened to the Boeing 777 that disappeared after leaving KualaLumpur bound for Beijing on 8 March, with 239 people on board.

1. Why did the plane make a sharp left turn?

Military radar logs show flight MH370 turned unexpectedly west when it diverted from its planned flight path, by which time the plane's transponder had already been switched off, and its last ACARS datalink transmission sent. Sudden turns like this are "extremely rare", according to Dr Guy Gratton of Brunel University's Flight Safety Lab. He says the only real reason pilots are likely to make such a manoeuvre is if there's a serious problem on the plane which makes them decide to divert to a different destination, to get the aircraft on the ground. That could be a fire, other aircraft in the area, or sudden decompression, according to David Barry, an expert on flight data monitoring at Cranfield University. Malicious intent - by a pilot or intruder - is another possibility. But unless the "black box" flight recorders are found, whatever happened in the cockpit at that moment will remain in the realms of speculation.

2. Is it reasonable to speculate that a pilot could have intended to kill himself?

There has been much speculation in the media that suicide might have been behind the loss of the plane. It wouldn't be the first time it's happened. The crashes of Egypt Air flight 990 in 1999 and Silk Air flight 185 in 1997 are both thought to have been caused deliberately by a pilot, though the view has been contested. The Aviation Safety Network says there have been eight plane crashes linked to pilot suicide since 1976. So far, no evidence has been released from searches of the homes of Captain Zaharie Ahmad Shah and his co-pilot Fariq Abdul Hamid that back up any similar explanation for MH370. There has been speculation that Shah may have been upset after breaking up with his wife, but there is so far no reliable source for his state of mind. It's been reported police are still examining a flight simulator found in the captain's home. Barry says the apparent turning off of certain systems might give weight to the theory, but "pilot suicide is a theory like any other". Gratton agrees. "There simply isn't any evidence to prove or disprove it," he says.

3. Is a hijack scenario even possible?

Airliners have been fitted with strengthened flight deck doors - intended to prevent intruders from taking control - since 9/11. David Learmount, safety editor at Flight International magazine, says they are "bulletproof" and "couldn't be penetrated with an axe".

Sylvia Wrigley, light aircraft pilot and author of Why Planes Crash, agrees it's unlikely anyone would be able to force their way in. "Even if the door was being broken down, they wouldn't be able to get in before there'd been a mayday call, unless the pilots were incapacitated," she says. However, one former pilot, who did not wish to be named, has suggested there is theoretically a way to disable the lock and get into the flight deck. But in any case, however secure the door, there are times when the door is open - when a member of the crew either visits the toilet or has to check on something in the cabin. It's always been pointed out that it would be possible to rush the cockpit when this is the case. Some airlines, including Israel's El Al, have double doors to guard against this scenario. Gratton says there's a procedure which requires a member of the cabin crew to guard the door when it's opened. But even in the event of hijackers rushing the cockpit, it would be easy for either crew member to send a distress signal. The security of the cockpit door offers protection against intruders, but it also prevents action being taken if something does go wrong. Last month the co-pilot of an Ethiaopian Airlines flight waited for the pilot to go to the toilet before hijacking the aircraft and flying it to Switzerland. There's also the possibility that a pilot invited a passenger in. Photographs have emerged of the co-pilot of MH370 entertaining teenage tourists in an aircraft cockpit during a previous flight. Boeing said it would be inappropriate to comment on an ongoing investigation.

4. Is there an accidental scenario that stands up to scrutiny?

So far most theories have been based on the assumption that the communications systems and the plane's transponder were deliberately disabled, a view endorsed by Malaysian officials. However, Wrigley believes it's possible a sequence of events may have taken the plane so far off course by accident. "Something could have gone wrong in stages. A fire could have taken out part of the plane, or led to some systems failing, but left the plane intact. Then there could have been decompression - not an explosive decompression, but a gradual one," she says. Wrigley cites the Helios Airways flight 522 which crashed into a mountain in Greece in 2005 after a loss of cabin pressure and lack of oxygen incapacitated the crew, but left the plane flying on autopilot, as an example. "If the Helios plane hadn't hit the mountain, it would have kept going until it ran out of fuel. I'm not saying it's a likely scenario, but it's not impossible," she says. Pilots have pointed out that one of the very first actions in many emergency drills is to send a message to air traffic control or some other form of signal. For a purely accidental scenario to make sense, whatever initial event took place must have simultaneously knocked out all regular means to communicate with the ground.

5. Why was no action taken when the plane's transponder signal went off?

MH370's transponder - which communicates with ground radar - was shut down as the aircraft crossed from Malaysian air traffic control into Vietnamese airspace over the South China Sea. If a plane disappeared in Europe, Barry says someone in air traffic control would have noticed and raised the alarm pretty quickly. Gratton agrees. "In Europe handover is extremely slick. "At the very least I'd expect air traffic controllers to try and contact a nearby aircraft to try and establish direct contact. Pilots frequently use TCAS [traffic collision avoidance system], which detects transponders of other aircraft to ensure they aren't too close to each other," he adds.

Air traffic control

However Steve Buzdygan, a former BA 777 pilot, says that from memory, there's a gap or "dead spot" of about 10 minutes in the VHF transmission before the plane would have crossed into Vietnamese airspace. Learmount says it's also perfectly feasible that nobody on the ground noticed the plane's disappearance. "Malaysian air traffic control had probably handed it over to the Vietnamese and forgotten about it. There could have been a five-minute delay before anyone noticed the plane hadn't arrived - a gap in which nobody pressed the alarm button," he says. Even if air traffic control did notice the plane was amiss, they wouldn't necessarily have made it public, he adds.

6. Why isn't it easier to track missing planes by military satellite?

The search effort on seas some 2,500km (1,500 miles) to the south-west of the Australian city of Perth has relied on images provided by commercial satellite companies. Dan Schnurr, chief technology officer at Geospatial Insight, says there are 20 known satellites that have a resolution capable of obtaining these images in the "vast tracts of the ocean passing over the poles". Of those, probably about 10 of them capture images on a daily basis. The images are beamed down from the satellites in very near real time, and are probably on the ground within two or three hours of image capture, he says. The delay in detecting valuable images is down to the time it takes to analyse the large volume of imagery. There are also satellite sources owned by the military and government, but these have not been prominent in the search. This has led to some speculation that the fate of the plane was known about earlier in the search, but not revealed. Laurence Gonzales, author of flight 232: A Story of Disaster and Survival, says some nations are bound to have more sophisticated surveillance systems than they are letting on. "A very small, fast ballistic missile can be picked up easily, so how can they lose a big, slow-moving object like a jumbo jet? It tells me somewhere in the angles of power in the world someone knows where the plane is but doesn't want to talk about it, probably for reasons of national security because they don't want to reveal the sophistication of the material they have... that their satellite technology is so good it can read a label on a golf ball," he says. But Gratton says military satellites looking for ballistic missiles probably wouldn't have thrown up much useful data because they wouldn't have been calibrated to pick up aircraft of this size. "This aircraft was seven miles up and travelled at three-quarters of the speed of sound. Ballistic missiles go up to four or five times the speed of sound, and 30 to 50 miles up - they have very different profiles," he says.

7. Did the plane glide into the sea or plunge after running out of fuel?

The MH370's final moments seem to depend on whether the plane was still being flown by a pilot. "If it was under control, the plane was capable of being glided. The Airbus that went into the New York's Hudson River lost both engines - which is an identical outcome to running out of fuel - and the pilot managed to land on the water," Gratton says. Barry agrees there could have been a gentle descent. "Aircraft of this size will normally fly or glide over 50 miles before they hit the sea if they run out of fuel," he says. However, if no-one was at the controls, he says the descent could have been "pretty severe".

8. Would the passengers have known something was wrong?

If a major malfunction had not occurred, it is unclear whether passengers would have known anything was awry, especially if there were no obvious signs of a struggle onboard. Joe Pappalardo, senior editor at Popular Mechanics magazine, says in most scenarios where a plane flies off course for hours, passengers can remain oblivious. At 01:00, many would probably have been asleep. In the morning, the astute might have worked out the Sun was in the wrong position.

Boeing 777s can fly higher than 40,000ft

Malaysian authorities have said the plane rose to 45,000ft, before falling to 23,000ft, after it changed course. If that's the case, passengers might have felt the loss of altitude, according to Pappalardo. However one theory is that the plane's apparent climb could have been designed to induce hypoxia - oxygen deprivation - which could have knocked people unconscious and even killed them. Wrigley thinks it could have played out in one of two ways. "In the horror story version passengers would have realized something was wrong as the plane climbed - and a decompression event would have led to oxygen masks coming down, and an awareness that oxygen was limited. A better scenario is they didn't know anything had happened until impact," she says.

9. Why didn't passengers use their mobile phones?

One commonly asked questions is why, if it had been obvious something was wrong, passengers wouldn't have used mobile phones to call relatives and raise the alarm. This seems especially puzzling in light of the example of United flight 93, where passengers communicated with people on the ground after the plane was hijacked during 9/11.

Waiting for news of MH370 in Beijing

It's been stated that it's extremely unlikely that anyone could get mobile signal on an airliner at 30,000ft. Barry agrees the chances of a mobile phone working on the plane were "virtually impossible". "It can be hard to get a signal on a remote road, let alone seven miles up, away from mobile phone masts, travelling at 500mph," he says.

10. Why can't planes be set up to give full real-time data to a satellite?

Arguably the most baffling thing to a layperson about the disappearance of MH370 is how it is even possible for a plane of this size to disappear so easily. In an era when people are used to being able to track a stolen smartphone, it's perplexing that switching off a couple of systems can apparently allow an airliner to vanish. Barry says the technology exists to allow planes to give off full real-time data. The problem is planes are "snapshots in time from when they are designed". "We're doing research into devices that will allow aircraft to start transmitting information by satellite when something unusual like a fire or decompression happens, but it's hard to fit things into a plane retrospectively. "The 777 went into service in the early 90s... the technology is of that era," he says. However, Gratton says ACARS would have done the job if it hadn't been turned off. A more complex satellite system would also be open to that risk, he argues, unless the industry wanted to go with = a system that couldn't be manually switched off, and that would come with other risks.

"It's not a particularly easy question. Is the bigger risk an aircraft going missing, or electronics overheating? Both situations can't be met," he says.

 Copyright of Vanessa Barford (BBC News Magazine)

Introduction to Management Information Systems

Introduction
1.1 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (MIS) CONCEPT

 The concept of the MIS has evolved over a period of time comprising many different facets of the organizational function. MIS is a necessity of all the organizations.

 The initial concept of MIS was to process data from the organization and present it in the of reports at regular intervals. The system was largely capable of handling the data from collection to processing. It was more impersonal, requiring each individual to pick and choose the processed data and use it for his requirements. This concept was further modified when a distinction was made between data and information. The information is a product of an analysis of data. This concept is similar to a raw material and the finished product. What are needed are information and not a mass of data. However, the data can be analyzed in a number of ways, producing different shades and specifications of the information as a product. It was, therefore, demanded that the system concept be an individual- oriented, as each individual may have a different orientation. Towards the information. This concept was further modified, that the system should present information in such a form and format that it creates an impact on its user, provoking a decision or an investigation. It was later realized then even though such an impact was a welcome modification, some sort of selective approach was necessary in the analysis and reporting. Hence, the concept of exception reporting was imbibed in MIS. The norm for an exception. Was necessary to evolve in the organization. The concept remained valid till and to the extent that the norm for an exception remained true and effective. Since the environment turns competitive and is ever changing, fixation of the norm for an exception becomes ka futile exercise at least for the people in the higher echelons of the organization. The concept was then evolved that the system should be capable of handling a need based exception reporting. This need maybe either of an individual or a group of people. This called for keeping all data together in such a form that it can be accessed by anybody and can be processed to suit his needs. The concept is that the data is one but it can be viewed by different individuals in different ways. This gave rise to the concept of DA ëABASE, and the MIS based on the DATABASE proved much more effective.

 Over a period of time, when these conceptual developments were taking place, the concept of the end user computing using multiple databases emerged. This concept brought a fundamental charge in MIS. The change was decentralization of the system and the user of the information becoming independent of computer professionals. When this becomes a reality, the concept of MIS changed to a decision making system. The job in a computer department is to manage the information resource and leave the task of information processing to the user. The concept of MIS in today is world is a system which handles the databases, databases, provides com-putting facilities to the end user and gives a variety of decision making tools to the user of the system.

 The concept of MIS gives high regard to the individual and his ability to use information. An MIS gives information through data analysis. While analyzing the data, it relies on many academic disciplines. These include the theories, principles and concepts from the Management Science, Psychology and Human Behavior, making the MID more effective and useful. These academic disciplines are used in designing the MIS, evolving the decision support tools for modeling and decision - making.

 The foundation of MIS is the principles of management and if its practices. MIS uses the concept of management Information System can be evolved for a specific objective if it is evolved after systematic planning and design. It calls for an analysis of a business, management views and policies, organization culture and the culture and the management style. The information should be generated in this setting and must be useful in managing the business. This is possible only when it in conceptualized as system with an appropriate design. The MIS, therefore, relies heavily on the systems theory offers solutions to handle the complex situations of the input and output flows. It uses theories of communication which helps to evolve a system design capable of handling data inputs, process, and outputs with the lest possible noise or distortion in transmitting the information form a source to a destination. It uses the principles of system Design, Viz., an ability of continuous adjustment or correction in the system in line with the environmental change in which the MIS operates. Such a design help to keep the MIS tuned with the business managements needs of the organization.

The Physical view of the MIS can be seen as assembly of several subsystems based on the databases in the organization. These subsystems range from data collection, transaction processing and validating, processing, analyzing and storing the information in databases. The subsystem could be at a functional level or a corporate level. The information is evolved through them for a functional or a department management and it provides the information for the management of business at the corporate level.

 The MIS is a product of a multi- disciplinary approach to the business management. It is a product which needs to be kept under a constant review and modification to meet the corporate needs of the information. It is prescribed product design for the organization. The MIS differs since the people in two organizations involved in the same business. The MIS is for the people in the organization. The MIS model may be the same but it differs greatly in the contents.

 The MIS, therefore, is a dynamic concept subject to change, time and again, with a change in the business management process. It continuously interacts with the internal and the external environment of the business and provides a corrective mechanism in the system so that the change needs of information are with effectively. The MIS, therefore, is a dynamic design, the primary objectively. The MIS, therefore, is a dynamic design the primary objective of which is to the information the information for decision making and it is developed considering the organizational fabric, giving due regard to the people in the organizational the management functions and the managerial and the managerial control.

 The MIS model of the organization changes over a time as the business passes through several phases of developmental growth cycle. It supports the management of the business in each phase by giving the information which is crucial in that phase. Every has critical success factors in each phase of growth cycle and the MIS model gives more information on the critical success factors for decision making.

 1.2 MIS DEFINITION

 The Management Information System (MIS) is a concept of the last decade or two. It has been understood and described in a number ways. It is also known as the Information System, the Information and Decision System, the Computer- based information System.

 The MIS has more than one definition, some of which are given below.

 1. The MIS is defined as a system which provides information support for decision making in the organization. 

2. The MIS is defined as an integrated system of man and machine for providing the information to support the operations, the management and the decision making function in the organization. 

3. The MIS is defined as a system based on the database of the organization evolved for the purpose of providing information to the people in the organization. 

4. The MIS is defined as a Computer ñ based Information System.

 Thought there are a number of definitions, all of them converge on one single point, i.e., the MIS is a system to support the decision making function in the organization. The difference lies in defining the elements of the MIS. However, in today is world MIS a computerized .business processing system generating information for the people in the organization to meet the information needs decision making to achieve the corporate objective of the organization.

 In any organization, small or big, a major portion of the time goes in data collection, processing, documenting it to the people. Hence, a major portion of the overheads goes into this kind of unproductive work in the organization. Every individual in an organization is continuously looking for some information which is needed to perform his/her task. Hence, the information is people-oriented and it varies with the nature of the people in the organization.

 The difficulty in handling this multiple requirement of the people is due to a couple of reasons. The information is a processed product to fulfill an imprecise need of the people. It takes time to search the data and may require a difficult processing path. It has a time value and unless processed on time and communicated, it has no value. The scope and the quantum of information is individual-dependent and it is difficult to conceive the information as a well-defined product for the entire organization. Since the people are instrumental in any business transaction, a human error is possible in conducting the same. Since a human error is difficult to control, the difficulty arises in ensuring a hundred per cent quality assurance of information in terms of completeness, accuracy, validity, timeliness and meeting the decision making needs.

 In order to get a better grip on the activity of information processing, it is necessary to have a formal system which should take care of the following points:  

Handling of a voluminous data.

Confirmation of the validity of data and transaction.

Complex processing of data and multidimensional analysis.

Quick search and retrieval.

Mass storage.

Communication of the information system to the user on time.

Fulfilling the changing needs of the information. The management information system uses computers and communication technology to deal with these points of supreme importance.

 1.3 ROLE OF THE MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM

 The role of the MIS in an organization can be compared to the role of heart in the body. The information is the blood and MIS is the heart. In the body the heart plays the role of supplying pure blood to all the elements of the body including the brain. The heart works faster and supplies more blood when needed. It regulates and controls the incoming impure blood, processes it and sends it to the destination in the quantity needed. It fulfills the needs of blood supply to human body in normal course and also in crisis.

 The MIS plays exactly the same role in the organization. The system ensures that an appropriate data is collected from the various sources, processed, and sent further to all the needy destinations. The system is expected to fulfill the information needs of an individual, a group of individuals, the management functionaries: the managers and the top management.

 The MIS satisfies the diverse needs through a variety of systems such as Query Systems, Analysis Systems, Modeling Systems and Decision Support Systems the MIS helps in Strategic Planning, Management Control, Operational Control and Transaction Processing.

 The MIS helps the clerical personnel in the transaction processing and answers their queries on the data pertaining to the transaction, the status of a particular record and references on a variety of documents. The MIS helps the junior management personnel by providing the operational data for planning, scheduling and control, and helps them further in decision making at the operations level to correct an out of control situation. The MIS helps the middle management in short them planning, target setting and controlling the business functions. It is supported by the use of the management tools of planning and control. The MIS helps the top management in goal setting, strategic planning and evolving the business plans and their implementation.

 The MIS plays the role of information generation, communication, problem identification and helps in the process of decision making. The MIS, therefore, plays a vita role in the management, administration and operations of an organization.

 1.4 IMPACT OF THE MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM  

 Since the MIS plays a very important role in the organization, it creates an impact on the organization is functions, performance and productivity.

 The impact of MIS on the functions is in its management. With a good support, the management of marking, finance, production and personnel become more efficient. The tracking and monitoring of the functional targets becomes easy. The functional, managers are informed about the progress, achievements and shortfalls in the probable trends in the various aspects of business. This helps in forecasting and long- term perspective planning. The manager is attention is brought to a situation which is exceptional in nature, inducing him to take an action or a decision in the matter. A disciplined information reporting system creates a structured data and a knowledge base for all the people in the organization. The information is available in such a form that it can be used straight away or by blending analysis, saving the manager is valuable time.

 The MIS creates another impact in the organization which relates to the understanding of the business itself. The MIS begins with the definition of a data entity and its attributes. It uses a dictionary if data, entity and attributes, respectively, designed for information generation in the organization. Since all the information system use the dictionary, there is common understanding of terms and terminology in the organization brining clarity in the communication and a similar understanding an even of the organization.

 The MIS calls for a systemization of the business operation for an affective system design.

 A well designed system with a focus on the manger makes an impact on the managerial efficiency. The fund of information motivates an enlightened manger to use a variety of tools of the management. It helps him to resort to such exercises as experimentation and modeling. The use of computers enables him to use the tools techniques which are impossible to use manually. The ready-made packages make this task simpler. The impact is on the managerial ability to perform. It improves the decision making ability considerably.

 Since the MIS works on the basic systems such as transaction processing and databases, the drudgery of the clerical work is transferred to the computerized system, relieving the human mind for better work. It will be observed that a lot of manpower is engaged in this activity in the organization. It you study the individualis time utilization and its application; you will find that seventy per cent of the time is spent in recording, searching, processing and communication. This is a large overhead in the organization. The MIS has a direct impact on this overhead. It creates an information- based work culture in the organization.

 1.5 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM AND COMPUTER

 Translating the real concept of the MIS into reality is technically, an infeasible proposition unless computers are used. The MIS relies heavily on the hardware and software capacity of the computer and its ability to process, retrieve communicate with no serious limitations.

 The variety of the hardware having distinct capabilities makes it possible to design the MIS for a specific situation. For example, if the organization needs a large database and very little processing, a computer system is available for such a requirement. Suppose the organization has multiple business location at long distances and if the need is to bring the data at one place, process, and then send the information to various location, it is possible to have a computer system with a distributed data processing capability. If the distance is too long, then the computer system can be hooked through a satellite communication system. The ability of the hardware to store data and process it at a very fast rate helps to deal with the data volumes, its storage and access effectively. The ability of the computer to sort and merge helps to organize the data in a particular manner and process it for complex lengthy computations. Since the computer is capable of digital, graphic, word image, voice and text processing, it is exploited to generate information and present it in the form which is easy to understand for the information user.

 The ability of a computer system to provide security of data brings a confidence in the management in the storage o data on a magnetic media in an impersonal mode. The computer system provides the facilities such as READ ONLY where you cannot delete to UPDATE. It provides an access to the selected information through a password and layered access facilities. The confidence nature of the data and information can be maintained in a computer system. With this ability, the MIS become a safe application in the organization.

 The software, an integral part of a computer system, further enhances the hardware capability. The software is available to handle the procedural and nonprocedural data processing. For example, if you want to use a formula to calculate a certain result, an efficient language is available to handle the situation. If you are not use a formula but have to resort every time to a new procedure, the nonprocedural languages are available.

 The software is available to transfer the data from one computer system to another. Hence, you can compute the results at one place and transfer them to a computer located at another place for some other use. The computer system being able to configure to the specific needs helps to design a flexible MIS.

 The advancement in computers and the communication technology has the distance, speed, volume and complex computing an easy task. Hence, designing the MIS for a specific need and simultaneously designing a flexible and open system becomes possible, thereby saving a lot of drudgery of development and maintenance and maintenance of the system. The concept of user ñ friendly systems and the end

user computing is possible, making information processing a personalized function. However, the application of the management principles and practices in today is complex business world is possible only when the MIS is based on computer system support.

1.6 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM AND ACADEMICS

 The management is information system draws a lot of support from other academic disciplines too. The foundation of MIS is the management theory. It uses the principles and practices of management while designing the system, ant gives due regard to the theory of organizational behavior.

 It considers the human mind as a processor of information. While designing the report format and forming communication channels, MIS takes into account the behavior of the manager as an individual and in a group. It gives due regard to the personal factors such as bias, thinking with a fixed frame of reference, risk aversion, strengths and weaknesses.

 Another area of academics is operational research. The operational research is used for developing the models of management and they are then incorporated in the MIS as decision support systems. The inventory control, queuing theory, and resource programming are used in the MIS as decision support systems. The network theory is used for planning and controlling large projects. The application of PER / CPM to a project planning is now easily possible through the MIS support.

 In the area of accounting application, it uses the accounting principles to ensure that the data is correct and valid. It uses the principles of double entry bookkeeping for balancing the accounts. It uses the accounting methodology for generating a trial balance sheet and other books of accounts.

 The MIS uses the communication theory in a significant manner. The principle of feedback is used while designing analysis. Systems. While designing the report format, attention is paid to avoid noise and distortions in the communication process. The MIS further relies heavily on the decision methodology. It uses different mathematical techniques to handle the situation of decision making uses the method of decision- making under certainty for decision- making and action.

 The MIS is based on database structures, viz .hierarchical, network and relational database have roots in the mathematics and the set theory.

 The MIS becomes rich in content and more useful when it becomes more and more a decision- making or decision- support system. The is possible when it builds decision making systems in MIS which in turn is possible if it draws tools, techniques, methods, rules and principles from pure and application science, and use them as an integral part of the system. The MIS draws data from its own source and uses it in the application of a variety of tools and techniques to solve the management, mathematics, and accounting. Psychology, communication theory, operations research and probability theory for building processes, methods, and decision and support systems in designing business application.

 1.7 MIS AND THE USER

 Every person in the organization is a user of the MIS. The people in the organization operate at all levels in the hierarchy. A typical user is a clerk, an assistant, an officer, an executive or a manager. Each of them has a specific task and a role to play in the management of business. The MIS caters to the needs of all persons.

 The main task of a clerk is to search the data, make a statement and submit it to the higher level. A clerk can use the MIS for a quick search and reporting the same to higher level. An assistant has the task of collecting and organizing the data, and conducting a rudimentary analysis of integrating the data from different and disciplines to analyze it and make a critical comment if anything adverse is found.

 The MIS offers the methods and facilities to integrate the data and report the same in a proper format. An executive plays the role of a decision maker. He is in of responsibility and accountability a position of a planner and a decision maker. He is responsible for achieving the target and goals of the organization. The MIS provides facilities to analyze the data and offers the decision support systems to perform the task of execution. The MIS provides an action ñ oriented information.

 The manager has a position of responsibility and accountability for the business results. His management role expands beyond his management function. He is a strategist and a long-term planner. He is a person with a foresight, an analytical ability and is expected to use these abilities in the functions of top management. The MIS provides information in a structured or unstructured format for him to react. The MIS caters to his constant changing needs of information. The user of the MIS is expected to be a rational person and the design of the MIS is based on this assumption.

 However, in reality the impact created on individuals by MIS is difficult to explain. The nature of the impact in a few cases is negative. However, this negative impact can be handled with proper training and counseling.

 It is observed that at lower level, is a sense of insecurity. As the MIS takes away the drudgery of search, collection, writing and reporting the data, the work vacuum, so created is not easily filled, thus creating a sense of insecurity. To some extent the importance of the person is also lost, giving rise to a fear of non-recognition in the organization At the level of an officer and an executive, the MIS does the job the of data manipulation and integration. It analyses the data in a predetermined manner. This means that the knowledge of business is transferred from an individual to the MIS and is made available to all in the organization. This change arising out of the MIS creates a sense of being neglected for knowledge, information and advice. The psychological impact is larger if the person is not able to cope up with this change by expanding or enriching the job and the position held by him.

 The manager holding a position in the top or middle management suffers from fear of challenge and exposure. The MIS makes these competitors more effective as they have access to the information and have an ability to interpret. This leads to a situation where he is afraid that that his position, decision and defense will be challenged and may be proved wrong sometime. The risk of adverse exposure to the higher management also increases. The effects so far pointed out are all negative and they are seen only in few cases.

 The positive effects on the individuals at all levels are that they have become more effective operators. The time and energy which was spent earlier in unproductive work is now applied for a productive work. Some are able to use their analytical skills and knowledge with the in formation support for improving their position in the organization. Managers, having improved their decision ñ making ability, are able to handle the complex situations with relative ease. Some are benefited by improving their performance and being held in high esteem by the higher management.

 The enterprising managers are able to use the systems and the models for trying out a Number of alternatives in a given problem situation. The impact of the MIS on people Of the organization is phenomenal as it has made the same body of people collectively more effective and productive.

 The recent major technological advances in communication such as Multimedia, Imaging. Graphical User Interfaces (GUI), Internet, Web etc. and the ability to access the data stored at different locations on the variety hardware of platforms would make MIS more attractive and efficient proposition. An intelligent user of information can demonstrate the ability of decision making, since his manipulative capability is considerably increased, with the information now being available on his desktop.

 Through the MIS, the information can be used as a strategic weapon to counter the threats to business, make business more competitive, and bring about the organizational transformation through integration. A good MIS also makes an organization seamless by removing all the communication barriers.